Classical grammar words in the Dao De Jing
之 zhī
In the Dao De Jing, 之 (zhī) is most often an object pronoun, “it” or “them” (124 times), then the linking particle “of” (86) and a particle that turns a clause into a phrase (41); once it is the verb “to go to”, and once it marks an object moved before its verb.
之 is the most frequent grammar word in the book. After a verb it is the object, “it” or “them”, as in 用之不勤, use it, it is never exhausted. Between two words it links them like “of” or “'s”: 天之道, the Way of heaven. Between a subject and its verb it turns a sentence into a phrase that can sit inside a larger sentence.
Modern Chinese has split these jobs: the linking 之 became 的 (天的道), and the object 之 became 它 or 他们. 之 survives in set phrases and formal writing, as in 之一, “one of”, and 之后, “after”.
之 as “it, them (object)”
Pattern Verb + 之
Here 之 is an object pronoun: it stands for someone or something already mentioned, like “it”, “him” or “them”, and comes right after the verb. It is never the subject. After a negative such as 莫, “no one”, it moves in front of the verb: 莫之能守, “cannot be defended” (chapter 9). Example: 用之不勤, “use it, it is never exhausted.” (chapter 6).
124 times in 106 lines.
同谓之玄，玄之又玄，
both are considered mysteries, mysteries within mysteries,
Chapter 1, line 8道冲而用之或不盈，
The Way is empty, yet used, it never fills up.
Chapter 4, line 1用之不勤。
use it, it is never exhausted.
Chapter 6, line 6持而盈之，
Persisting in fulfilling it,
Chapter 9, line 1揣而锐之，
Protecting and sharpening it,
Chapter 9, line 3莫之能守。
cannot be defended.
Chapter 9, line 6
Show 100 more lines
生之，畜之，
Create it, foster it,
Chapter 10, line 13故有之以为利，
Therefore, presence brings benefits,
Chapter 11, line 9无之以为用。
absence brings utility.
Chapter 11, line 10宠为下，得之若惊，
Favor is lowly: gaining it is alarming,
Chapter 13, line 4失之若惊，
and so is losing it,
Chapter 13, line 5视之不见，名曰夷，
Look for it, it cannot be seen. It is called the distant.
Chapter 14, line 1听之不闻，名曰希，
Listen for it, it cannot be heard. It is called the rare.
Chapter 14, line 2搏之不得，名曰微。
Reach for it, it cannot be gotten. It is called the subtle.
Chapter 14, line 3迎之不见其首，随之不见其后。
Go to meet it, you cannot see its face. Follow it, you cannot see its back.
Chapter 14, line 9夫唯不可识，故强为之容。
Precisely because they cannot be known, I am forced to describe their appearance.
Chapter 15, line 2孰能浊以静之徐清？
Who can be muddled, and use clarity to gradually become lucid?
Chapter 15, line 9孰能安以久动之徐生？
Who can be calm, and use constant application for eventual success?
Chapter 15, line 10太上，下知有之。
The great masters: those below only know they exist.
Chapter 17, line 1其次，亲而誉之。
The next are loved and praised.
Chapter 17, line 2其次，畏之。
The next are feared.
Chapter 17, line 3其次，侮之。
The next are despised.
Chapter 17, line 4夫唯不争，故天下莫能与之争。
He does not contend, therefore the world cannot contend with him.
Chapter 22, line 7诚全而归之。
Be sincerely wholesome and return to it.
Chapter 22, line 9同于道者，道亦乐得之；
The daoist who bonds, is also gladly received by the Way.
Chapter 23, line 11同于德者，德亦乐得之；
The virtuous who bonds, is also gladly received by virtue.
Chapter 23, line 12同于失者，失亦乐得之。
The vanquished who bonds, is also gladly received by defeat.
Chapter 23, line 13物或恶之，
all things may loathe them.
Chapter 24, line 5吾不知其名，字之曰道，
I don't know its name. As a word, I label it the "Way".
Chapter 25, line 4强为之名曰大。
Imposing on it a name, I call it "great."
Chapter 25, line 5圣人用之则为官长。
the sage, using them, sets up the heads of officials.
Chapter 28, line 11将欲取天下而为之，
If you wish to take the world and run it,
Chapter 29, line 1为者败之，执者失之。
Manipulators spoil it, commanders lose it.
Chapter 29, line 4物或恶之，故有道者不处。
All things may loathe them, so the daoist does not keep them.
Chapter 31, line 2不得已而用之，
When he has no choice but to use them,
Chapter 31, line 6而美之者，是乐杀人。
To find it beautiful is to delight in killing people.
Chapter 31, line 8言以丧礼处之。
which means war is treated as a funeral.
Chapter 31, line 13杀人之众，以哀悲泣之，
When many people are killed, weep for them in grief and sorrow.
Chapter 31, line 14战胜，以丧礼处之。
A victory in war is treated as a funeral.
Chapter 31, line 15侯王若能守之，
If lords and kings could hold to it,
Chapter 32, line 3民莫之令而自均。
and the people, with no one ordering them, would share it evenly.
Chapter 32, line 6万物恃之而生而不辞，
The myriad things rely on it for life, and it does not refuse them.
Chapter 34, line 2视之不足见，
Looked at, it cannot be seen;
Chapter 35, line 6听之不足闻，
listened to, it cannot be heard;
Chapter 35, line 7用之不足既。
used, it cannot be exhausted.
Chapter 35, line 8将欲歙之，必固张之；
What is to be shrunk must first be stretched;
Chapter 36, line 1将欲弱之，必固强之；
what is to be weakened must first be strengthened;
Chapter 36, line 2将欲废之，必固兴之；
what is to be cast down must first be raised up;
Chapter 36, line 3将欲夺之，必固与之，
what is to be taken must first be given.
Chapter 36, line 4侯王若能守之，
If lords and kings could hold to it,
Chapter 37, line 2吾将镇之以无名之朴。
I would calm them with the nameless uncarved block.
Chapter 37, line 5下德为之而有以为。
Inferior virtue acts, and has a motive for acting.
Chapter 38, line 4上仁为之而无以为，
Superior humaneness acts, but has no motive for acting.
Chapter 38, line 5上义为之而有以为，
Superior justice acts, and has a motive for acting.
Chapter 38, line 6上礼为之而莫之应，
Superior ritual acts, and when no one responds,
Chapter 38, line 7则攘臂而扔之。
it rolls up its sleeves and forces them.
Chapter 38, line 8其致之。
It is the One that brought this about.
Chapter 39, line 5勤而行之；
he practices it diligently;
Chapter 41, line 2下士闻道，大笑之。
when the lesser scholar hears of the Way, he laughs out loud at it.
Chapter 41, line 5故建言有之：
So the established sayings have it:
Chapter 41, line 7故物或损之而益，
So things may gain by being diminished,
Chapter 42, line 8或益之而损。
or lose by being increased.
Chapter 42, line 9人之所教，我亦教之。
What others teach, I also teach:
Chapter 42, line 10天下希及之。
few in the world attain them.
Chapter 43, line 5损之又损，以至于无为。
Losing and losing again, one arrives at non-action.
Chapter 48, line 2善者，吾善之；
To the good, I am good;
Chapter 49, line 3不善者，吾亦善之，德善。
to those who are not good, I am also good, and so goodness is gained.
Chapter 49, line 4信者，吾信之；
The trustworthy I trust;
Chapter 49, line 5不信者，吾亦信之，德信。
the untrustworthy I also trust, and so trust is gained.
Chapter 49, line 6圣人皆孩之。
the sage treats them all as children.
Chapter 49, line 9道生之，德畜之，物形之，
The Way gives them life, virtue nourishes them, things shape them,
Chapter 51, line 1势成之。
circumstance completes them.
Chapter 51, line 2道之尊，德之贵，夫莫之命而常自然。
The Way is honored and virtue valued not by anyone's command, but always of themselves.
Chapter 51, line 4故道生之，德畜之。
So the Way gives them life and virtue nourishes them.
Chapter 51, line 5长之育之，亭之毒之，
It raises them and rears them, shapes them and ripens them,
Chapter 51, line 6养之覆之。
nurtures them and protects them.
Chapter 51, line 7修之于身，其德乃真；
Cultivate it in yourself, and virtue will be genuine;
Chapter 54, line 4修之于家，其德乃余；
cultivate it in the family, and virtue will be abundant;
Chapter 54, line 5修之于乡，其德乃长；
cultivate it in the village, and virtue will last;
Chapter 54, line 6修之于国，其德乃丰；
cultivate it in the state, and virtue will flourish;
Chapter 54, line 7修之于天下，其德乃普。
cultivate it in the world, and virtue will be everywhere.
Chapter 54, line 8早服谓之重积德；
submitting early means accumulating virtue again and again;
Chapter 59, line 3是以圣人犹难之，
So the sage treats things as difficult,
Chapter 63, line 11为之于未有，
Deal with things before they exist;
Chapter 64, line 3治之于未乱。
put them in order before disorder comes.
Chapter 64, line 4为者败之，执者失之。
Manipulators spoil it, commanders lose it.
Chapter 64, line 10民之从事，常于几成而败之。
People at their work often spoil it when it is almost done.
Chapter 64, line 13将以愚之。
but to keep them simple.
Chapter 65, line 2以其善下之，
because they are good at being below them;
Chapter 66, line 2是以欲上民，必以言下之。
So to be above the people, one must speak as one below them;
Chapter 66, line 4欲先民，必以身后之。
to lead the people, one must put oneself behind them.
Chapter 66, line 5以其不争，故天下莫能与之争。
Because he does not contend, no one in the world can contend with him.
Chapter 66, line 9我有三宝，持而保之。
I have three treasures, which I hold and keep:
Chapter 67, line 5天将救之，以慈卫之。
Heaven will save such a one, and guard him with compassion.
Chapter 67, line 15善胜敌者不与，善用人者为之下，
one good at defeating enemies does not engage them; one good at using people places himself below them.
Chapter 68, line 3是以圣人犹难之。
So even the sage finds it difficult.
Chapter 73, line 5奈何以死惧之？
why threaten them with death?
Chapter 74, line 2吾得执而杀之，
could be seized and killed by me,
Chapter 74, line 5高者抑之，下者举之；
What is high is pressed down, what is low is raised up;
Chapter 77, line 2有余者损之，
what has too much is reduced,
Chapter 77, line 3不足者补之。
what has too little is added to.
Chapter 77, line 4而攻坚强者，莫之能胜，
yet for attacking the hard and strong, nothing surpasses it,
Chapter 78, line 2其无以易之。
for nothing can take its place.
Chapter 78, line 3虽有舟舆，无所乘之；
Though they have boats and carts, they have no need to ride them;
Chapter 80, line 3虽有甲兵，无所陈之。
though they have armor and weapons, they have no need to display them.
Chapter 80, line 4使人复结绳而用之，
Let people go back to knotting cords to keep records,
Chapter 80, line 5
之 as “of, 's (linking particle)”
Pattern A 之 B
Between two nouns, 之 links them like “of” or “'s”: the first word owns, describes or limits the second, and the second is the thing being talked about. Read A 之 B as “the B of A”. Example: 天之道, “the Way of heaven.” (chapter 9). The first part can be long: 千里之行, “a journey of a thousand miles” (chapter 64).
86 times in 79 lines.
无名天地之始，
The nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth.
Chapter 1, line 3有名万物之母。
The named is the mother of the myriad things.
Chapter 1, line 4同谓之玄，玄之又玄，
both are considered mysteries, mysteries within mysteries,
Chapter 1, line 8众妙之门。
the gateway to all marvels.
Chapter 1, line 9是以圣人处无为之事，
Thus the sage puts himself in a position of non-active productive state,
Chapter 2, line 6行不言之教，万物作焉而不辞，
carries out unspoken guidance. The myriad things conform to the same law, without a word.
Chapter 2, line 7
Show 73 more lines
不贵难得之货，使民不为盗。
not valuing hard-to-get goods makes people refrain from stealing.
Chapter 3, line 2是以圣人之治，
Thus the sage governs:
Chapter 3, line 4渊兮似万物之宗。
So deep as to be the ancestor of the myriad things.
Chapter 4, line 2吾不知谁之子，
I do not know what it is,
Chapter 4, line 6象帝之先。
it appeared before God.
Chapter 4, line 7天地之间，其犹橐籥乎？
Space in the cosmos, is it just like bellows?
Chapter 5, line 3玄牝之门，
the opening of the mystic female,
Chapter 6, line 3处众人之所恶，
it goes to places that everyone abhors,
Chapter 8, line 3天之道。
the Way of heaven.
Chapter 9, line 10有车之用。
makes the cart practical.
Chapter 11, line 3有器之用。
makes the pot usable.
Chapter 11, line 6当其无，有室之用。
its emptiness within, makes the room useful.
Chapter 11, line 8难得之货令人行妨。
hard-to-get goods make people misbehave.
Chapter 12, line 5是谓无状之状，无物之象。
Thus, it is called the formless form, The image of no-thing.
Chapter 14, line 7执古之道，以御今之有，
By holding to the ancient Way, you can protect yourself from present confusion.
Chapter 14, line 10古之善为士者，微妙玄通，深不可识。
The ancient masters of the Way had subtle marvelous mystic penetration; a depth that cannot be known.
Chapter 15, line 1唯之与阿，相去几何？
Between a polite yes and a curt yes, how great is the difference?
Chapter 20, line 2善之与恶，相去若何？
How far removed from each other are "good" and "evil"?
Chapter 20, line 3我愚人之心也哉！
Mine is the mind of a fool!
Chapter 20, line 13孔德之容，惟道是从。
The great virtue's form, only originates from the Way.
Chapter 21, line 1吾何以知众甫之状哉？
How do I know the form of all its origins?
Chapter 21, line 9奈何万乘之主，
What's to be done with the innumerable leaders,
Chapter 26, line 4故善人者，不善人之师；
Hence, the benefactor is the teacher of the lesser person,
Chapter 27, line 10不善人者，善人之资。
the lesser person is the endowment of the benefactor.
Chapter 27, line 11大军之后，必有凶年。
A great war's aftermath, necessarily involves famine.
Chapter 30, line 5夫佳兵者，不祥之器。
Fine weapons are instruments of ill omen.
Chapter 31, line 1兵者，不祥之器，
Weapons are instruments of ill omen,
Chapter 31, line 4非君子之器。
not the instruments of the noble one.
Chapter 31, line 5杀人之众，以哀悲泣之，
When many people are killed, weep for them in grief and sorrow.
Chapter 31, line 14国之利器不可以示人。
the sharp tools of the state must not be shown to people.
Chapter 36, line 8吾将镇之以无名之朴。
I would calm them with the nameless uncarved block.
Chapter 37, line 5无名之朴，
The nameless uncarved block
Chapter 37, line 6夫礼者，忠信之薄而乱之首。
Ritual is the thinning of loyalty and trust, and the start of disorder.
Chapter 38, line 11前识者，道之华而愚之始。
Foreknowledge is the flower of the Way and the beginning of folly.
Chapter 38, line 12昔之得一者，天得一以清，
Of old, these attained the One: heaven attained the One and became clear,
Chapter 39, line 1反者，道之动；
Returning is the movement of the Way;
Chapter 40, line 1弱者，道之用。
weakness is the use of the Way.
Chapter 40, line 2天下之至柔，驰骋天下之至坚。
The softest thing in the world runs through the hardest thing in the world.
Chapter 43, line 1不言之教，无为之益，
Teaching without words, the benefit of non-action:
Chapter 43, line 4故知足之足，常足矣。
So the contentment of knowing what is enough is lasting contentment.
Chapter 46, line 5生之徒，十有三；
Those who follow life are three in ten;
Chapter 50, line 2死之徒，十有三；
those who follow death are three in ten;
Chapter 50, line 3含德之厚，比于赤子。
One who holds virtue in fullness is like a newborn child.
Chapter 55, line 1未知牝牡之合而朘作，
He knows nothing of the union of male and female, yet his member stirs:
Chapter 55, line 5有国之母，可以长久；
holding the mother of the state, one can last long.
Chapter 59, line 7是谓深根固柢，长生久视之道。
This is called deep roots and a firm base, the Way of long life and lasting sight.
Chapter 59, line 8天下之交。
where the whole world meets.
Chapter 61, line 2天下之牝，牝常以静胜牡，
It is the female of the world. The female always overcomes the male by stillness;
Chapter 61, line 3道者万物之奥。
The Way is the hidden refuge of the myriad things,
Chapter 62, line 1善人之宝，不善人之所保。
the treasure of the good, and what keeps the not-good safe.
Chapter 62, line 2合抱之木，
A tree as wide as your arms can reach
Chapter 64, line 5九层之台，
a tower of nine stories
Chapter 64, line 7千里之行，始于足下。
a journey of a thousand miles starts beneath your feet.
Chapter 64, line 9不贵难得之货；
and does not value goods that are hard to get;
Chapter 64, line 16以辅万物之自然，而不敢为。
He helps the myriad things to be as they are of themselves, and does not dare to act.
Chapter 64, line 18古之善为道者，非以明民，
Those of old who were good at the Way did not use it to make the people clever,
Chapter 65, line 1故以智治国，国之贼，
So to govern a state with cleverness is to rob the state;
Chapter 65, line 4不以智治国，国之福。
not to govern a state with cleverness is a blessing for the state.
Chapter 65, line 5江海所以能为百谷之王者，
Rivers and seas can be kings of the hundred valleys
Chapter 66, line 1故能为百谷之王。
so they can be kings of the hundred valleys.
Chapter 66, line 3是谓不争之德，是谓用人之力，
This is called the virtue of not contending; this is called using the strength of others;
Chapter 68, line 4是谓配天之极。
this is called matching heaven, the highest of all.
Chapter 68, line 5天之道，不争而善胜，
The Way of heaven does not contend, yet is good at winning;
Chapter 73, line 6故坚强者死之徒，
So the hard and stiff are companions of death;
Chapter 76, line 4柔弱者生之徒。
the soft and weak are companions of life.
Chapter 76, line 5天之道，其犹张弓与？
Is the Way of heaven not like drawing a bow?
Chapter 77, line 1天之道，损有余而补不足。
The Way of heaven reduces what has too much and adds to what has too little.
Chapter 77, line 5人之道则不然，
The way of people is not so:
Chapter 77, line 6“受国之垢，是谓社稷主；
"One who takes on the filth of the state is called lord of the altars of earth and grain;
Chapter 78, line 8小国寡民，使有什伯之器而不用，
A small state with few people: let them have tools for ten or a hundred, and not use them;
Chapter 80, line 1邻国相望，鸡犬之声相闻，
Neighboring states can see each other, and hear each other's cocks and dogs,
Chapter 80, line 9天之道，利而不害；
The Way of heaven benefits and does not harm;
Chapter 81, line 9圣人之道，为而不争。
the Way of the sage acts and does not contend.
Chapter 81, line 10
之 as “that (clause particle)”
Pattern Subject + 之 + Verb
Placed between a subject and its verb, 之 turns a full sentence (“people live”) into a phrase (“people's living”, “when people live”) that serves as part of a larger sentence. The word after 之 is a verb or an adjective, not a noun. Example: 人之生也柔弱, “People are soft and weak when alive” (chapter 76). With 所 it gives “what someone does”: 人之所畏, “What the people fear” (chapter 20).
41 times in 38 lines.
天下皆知美之为美，斯恶已，
People on Earth have defined beautiful as beautiful, and thus they created ugliness.
Chapter 2, line 1皆知善之为善，斯不善已。
They have defined the good as good, and thus they created evil.
Chapter 2, line 2涣兮若冰之将释，
Like ice, ever melting away before revealing itself.
Chapter 15, line 6人之所畏，不可不畏。
What the people fear, one cannot but fear.
Chapter 20, line 4如婴儿之未孩。
Like an infant who has not yet laughed.
Chapter 20, line 9道之为物，惟恍惟惚。
The Way as a "thing" is only obscure and vague.
Chapter 21, line 2
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古之所谓曲则全者，岂虚言哉！
The ancient saying "The bent is made whole", how can it be regarded as empty talk?
Chapter 22, line 8师之所处，荆棘生焉。
Where troops have camped, thorns and brambles grow.
Chapter 30, line 4譬道之在天下，
The Way in the world
Chapter 32, line 10犹川谷之于江海。
is like streams and valleys flowing to rivers and seas.
Chapter 32, line 11道之出口，
But when the Way is spoken,
Chapter 35, line 4人之所恶，唯孤、寡、不谷，
What people loathe is to be "orphaned", "widowed" and "unworthy",
Chapter 42, line 6人之所教，我亦教之。
What others teach, I also teach:
Chapter 42, line 10吾是以知无为之有益。
From this I know the benefit of non-action.
Chapter 43, line 3人之生，
and people who live
Chapter 50, line 4以其生生之厚。
Because they cling too hard to living.
Chapter 50, line 8道之尊，德之贵，夫莫之命而常自然。
The Way is honored and virtue valued not by anyone's command, but always of themselves.
Chapter 51, line 4吾何以知天下之然哉？以此。
How do I know the world is so? By this.
Chapter 54, line 12精之至也。
this is vital essence at its height.
Chapter 55, line 6终日号而不嗄，和之至也。
He cries all day without growing hoarse: this is harmony at its height.
Chapter 55, line 7祸兮福之所倚，
Misfortune is what fortune leans on;
Chapter 58, line 3福兮祸之所伏。
fortune is where misfortune hides.
Chapter 58, line 4人之迷，其日固久。
People have been lost in this for a long time.
Chapter 58, line 7善人之宝，不善人之所保。
the treasure of the good, and what keeps the not-good safe.
Chapter 62, line 2人之不善，何弃之有？
Even if people are not good, why cast them away?
Chapter 62, line 4古之所以贵此道者何？
Why did the ancients value this Way?
Chapter 62, line 8民之从事，常于几成而败之。
People at their work often spoil it when it is almost done.
Chapter 64, line 13学不学，复众人之所过。
he learns not to learn, and brings people back from where they went too far.
Chapter 64, line 17民之难治，以其智多。
People are hard to govern because they are too clever.
Chapter 65, line 3天之所恶，孰知其故？
What heaven loathes, who knows why?
Chapter 73, line 4民之饥，以其上食税之多，
The people go hungry because those above eat up too much in taxes;
Chapter 75, line 1民之难治，以其上之有为，
The people are hard to govern because those above meddle;
Chapter 75, line 3民之轻死，
The people make light of death
Chapter 75, line 5以其上求生之厚，
because those above seek too much from life;
Chapter 75, line 6人之生也柔弱，其死也坚强。
People are soft and weak when alive, hard and stiff when dead.
Chapter 76, line 1万物草木之生也柔脆，
The myriad things, grass and trees, are soft and tender when alive,
Chapter 76, line 2弱之胜强，
The weak overcomes the strong,
Chapter 78, line 4柔之胜刚，
the soft overcomes the hard:
Chapter 78, line 5
之 as “to go to”
Pattern 之 + place
The first meaning of 之 is a verb, “to go to”, followed by the place one goes. The book uses it once: 动之死地, “but move toward the place of death” (chapter 50). This is how the line is usually read.
Once, in one line.
动之死地，
but move toward the place of death
Chapter 50, line 5
之 as “(marks an object moved before its verb)”
Pattern object + 之 + verb
In a question, an object can move in front of its verb, and 之 then stands between them to mark the move: 何弃之有 (chapter 62), “why cast them away?”, is literally “what casting-away is there?”, with 何弃 moved before 有. Here 之 is not “it”: it has no meaning of its own and English leaves it out.
Once, in one line.
人之不善，何弃之有？
Even if people are not good, why cast them away?
Chapter 62, line 4
How to tell them apart
Look at what comes right before and after 之. After a verb, at the end of a phrase, it is “it” or “them”: 道生之, the Way gives them life (chapter 51). Between two nouns it is “of”: 道之动, the movement of the Way (chapter 40). Between a subject and a verb it marks a clause: 道之出口, when the Way is spoken (chapter 35).
The last two look alike: 道之 and one more word. Ask whether that word names a thing or says what the subject does. In chapter 40, 动 is read as a noun, “movement”; in chapter 35, 出口, “comes out of the mouth”, is an action, so the whole is a clause. In 何弃之有 (chapter 62), 之 follows an object, 何弃, moved in front of its verb 有; it is usually read as the particle that marks the move, not as a pronoun.